A Decolonized Timeline of Haitian History (Vol. 1)
Why a Timeline?
Understanding the history of a nation is like piecing together a complex puzzle with missing pieces. Each event, no matter how small, contributes to the formation of the larger picture. A larger picture, however, doesn’t mean a fixed one. The canvas shifts as discoveries are made, as new ways of interpreting the past change over time.
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Girard, P. R. (2011). The slaves who defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801-1804. University of Alabama Press. https://amzn.to/46AeY52
Execution of Makandal, François, leader of the first major slave insurrection.
January, 1758
1772
promotion
Bayon de Libertat becomes manager of Bréda estate (until 1789); Libertat appoints Toussaint as his coachman.
1772
Jan/Apr, 1774
death
Death of Toussaint’s parents, Hippolyte & Pauline
Jan/Apr, 1774
1775
Emancipation
Louverture, Toussaint emancipated from slavery; however, according to Hazareesingh, “recently uncovered documents from the Bréda estate show that Toussaint was still living on the plantation in the 1780s.” It turns out Toussaint stayed because though he was free, his family were not.
1775
1776
U.S.
US declares independence from the Brits. The beginning of the US becoming a Herrenvolk Democracy and thus can’t be included as part of the “Age of Revolution”.
Saint Domingue’s white community exclusively campaigned for colonial autonomy; SD experienced a second coffee boom, supplying 60% of coffee exports to the Atlantic World market. Coffee production occurred in the west and east of SD.
1789 -90
1789 (Jan-Mar)
Elections
Wealthy colonial activists illegally elect deputies to the States-General in France.
The French Revolution begins with the Fall of the Bastille.
(July 14)
(August)
France
White & free colored colonists form separate political clubs are in Paris to press their interests; (August 26) French National Assembly adopts Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen,
(August)
(September)
In Saint Domingue
property-owning free people of color petition French National Assembly demanding equal civil and political rights
(September)
(October)
In Saint-Domingue
Colonial Assembly blocked reforms from the French metropole, and denied rights to free people of color; Inspired by the Bastille’s fall, white radicals forced the Intendant, Barbé-Marbois, François, to flee Saint-Domingue. Free colored called for political rights met with persecution. African enslaved voiced protests on some plantations but were brutally suppressed.
(October)
1790 (March)
In Saint Domingue
property-owning free people of color petition French National Assembly demanding equal civil and political rights
1790 (March)
(May)
Politics
Saint-Domingue Colonial Assembly declares autonomy from France
(May)
(July)
Leaders
Governor Peinier closes the autonomist Colonial Assembly at St. Marc
(July)
(October)
Leaders
Vincent Ogé leads a free-colored rebellion in the North.
The French National Assembly adopted a decree granting full political rights to a limited segment of the free people of color. This decree was highly contentious and was seen as an intolerable intervention in the internal affairs of Saint-Domingue by the white planters.
(May 15)
(July)
White Reaction in SD
New Colonial Assembly is dominated by white supremacists and they’re pissed; they discuss secession and organize to resist the May 15 decree
(July)
(August 14-22)
Bois Caïman
Insurrections of slaves in the Northern province of Saint Domingue begins—Bois Caïman; involved in its planning, Louverture, Toussaint becomes secretary of rebel leader Biassou; Cap Français burnt to the ground; insurrection of free coloreds in the west;
(August 14-22)
(September)
Annulment
The May 15th decree was annulled by the colonial assembly in Saint-Domingue. This was a reaction to the perceived overreach by the French National Assembly.
(September)
(September – Dec)
Leaders
Toussaint emerges as a key figure in the rebel leadership; protects white prisoners and advocates compromise with w/the local Colonial Assembly
(September – Dec)
(November)
Leaders
Death of Boukman–his head chopped off and paraded on a pike in Cap; Port-au-Prince in flames–fighting between white radicals and free coloreds
(November)
(December)
Leaders
Rebellion of free men of color in the Grande Anse region—The Fond d’Icaque Rising; Cotton was the main crop of the region, sold mainly to contraband traders
(December)
1792
Leaders
Slave owner Thomas Jefferson asserted that the doctrine of discovery was international, and therefore applied to the U.S. government.
1792
(January)
The Masses
Former Slaves continue rebellion, spasmodically spreads in west and south regions
(January)
(April)
In France
Revolutionary New French Legislative Assembly ends racial discrimination in all its stolen colonial land-grabs.
A year after Bois Caïman, Toussaint attends a celebration in honor of the French King. The ceremony was organized by General Biassou in Grande-Rivière to honor the feast day of Louis XVI. The fall of the French monarchy ensued; the proclamation of the French Republic in Aug. 22, two days before the Biassou get-together.
The Emancipation of 1833 refers to the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that abolished slavery in most British colonies.
This historic act “freed” more than 800,000 enslaved Africans in the Caribbean, South Africa, and a small number in Canada. It received Royal Assent on August 28, 1833, and took effect on August 1, 1834. The act was a significant milestone in the fight against the transatlantic slave trade and slavery within the British Empire.
Christophe, Marie-Louise, the wife of King Henry Christophe, applied for and was awarded indemnity for her two enslaved in Dominica. As a result of this Act. she was awarded 38 pounds, 11 shillings, and five denarius (pennies).
By the time 1789 came, Saint-Domingue was divided into three provinces, each of which had its colonial assembly. These assemblies were formed by white planters, lawyers, and merchants who were responding to the democratic upheavals in France.
Eventually, these assemblies became radicalized and the compromise between planters and merchants brokered in France immediately collapsed in the face of intransigent colonial whites, which later would lead to violence. No honor among theives goes the saying: the white society of Saint-Domingue fragmented to a point that no unity was ever feasible.
The “Lettre originale des chefs nègres révoltés” is a very important historical document from the era of the Haitian Revolution because it disproves the idea that Haiti’s revolutionaries were just a bunch of savages who only knew how to fight, who didn’t have higher aspirations or abstract ideas of liberty or freedom. Here’s a brief overview:
Authors: The letter was signed by Jean-François, Biassou, and Gabriel Belair, who were leaders of the revolt.
Content: The letter made an explicit appeal to the ideal of a community of equals. This vision of a multiracial Saint-Domingue was a precursor to the later vision of Toussaint Louverture.
Impact: The letter is seen as a significant document in the history of the Haitian Revolution, reflecting the aspirations and demands of the enslaved Africans who were fighting for their freedom.
According to David Geggus, within the context of the Haitian Revolution, the Grande Anse region held on to white supremacy & slavery longer than in any other part of the colony.
He served as the governor of Saint-Domingue from 1790 to 1791. However, it’s important to note that during this period, Saint-Domingue was experiencing significant social and political upheaval, which eventually led to the Haitian Revolution.
He opposed the decision of the governor, Marie-Charles du Chilleau, to open the ports of Saint-Domingue to the import of foreign grain, even though this move was supported by the Conseil Supérieur of the colony. Barbé-Marbois was accused locally of profiteering from the grain crisis. After the ordinance allowing free import of grain was issued, Barbé-Marbois had to leave Saint-Domingue.
The Société des Amis des Noirs, or the Society of the Friends of the Blacks, was a French abolitionist society founded on February 19, 1788. It was directly inspired by the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, which was established in London a year earlier.
The Three-Fifths Compromise agreed upon during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention, is a stark reminder of the deeply entrenched system of racial oppression that was present at the founding of the United States.
In a decolonized context, it’s important to understand this compromise as a mechanism that further dehumanized enslaved Africans, reducing them to fractions of a person for the benefit of political representation and taxation. This compromise was not about recognizing the humanity of enslaved people, but about enhancing the political power of the slaveholding states.
The Southern states, whose economies were heavily reliant on the labor of enslaved Africans, wanted to count these individuals as part of their population to gain more seats in the House of Representatives. The Northern states, on the other hand, were opposed to this as it would give the South more political power.
The compromise of counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person was a political maneuver designed to appease both sides. However, it’s crucial to remember that this agreement further entrenched systemic racism and the commodification of Black bodies within the foundational document of the United States.
The Three-Fifths Compromise was later superseded by the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, which granted full personhood to formerly enslaved individuals. However, the legacy of such compromises continues to impact racial dynamics in the United States today.
This is the toddler version of “Mine!” applied to colonizing white supremacist European empires. The doctrine of discovery was used to justify the colonization and exploitation of lands and peoples by European powers. According to this doctrine, when a European nation “discovered” a territory that was unknown to other Europeans, it acquired the right to claim that territory and exclude other European nations from it. The doctrine also denied the sovereignty and rights of the indigenous peoples who lived on the land, and allowed the colonizers to enslave, convert, or dispossess them. The doctrine of discovery was introduced into United States law by the Supreme Court in 1823, and has been challenged by indigenous rights advocates and legal scholars. (See: Settler | Terra Nullius)
A possible decolonized definition of the word settler is:
Dr. Marlene Daut coined the term desettler, as a replacement. A settler desettler then is a person who occupies and exploits the land and resources of other people, often without their consent or recognition. A settler desettler benefits from the colonial structures and systems that oppress, displace, and erase the original inhabitants of the land. A settler desettler often claims to belong to the land, while denying the sovereignty, culture, and history of the Indigenous people. A settler desettler may also participate in the assimilation, genocide, or marginalization of the Indigenous people. A settler desettler may be unaware of or indifferent to their role and responsibility in the ongoing genocidal colonization of the land and its original inhabitants. (See Terra nullius | Doctrine of Discovery)
Herrenvolk democracy is a system of government in which only a specific ethnic/racial group participates in government, while other groups are disenfranchised. The term Herrenvolk means “master race” in German and was used to justify colonialism and racism². Some examples of Herrenvolk democracy are the Confederate States of America, Apartheid South Africa, and Rhodesia¹.
The Rada Rite is a significant and well-established tradition within Haitian Vodou. It originated from the Rada people of the Bight of Benin, an area known for its rich cultural and spiritual practices. The Rada Rite is considered the oldest and foundational rite in Haitian Vodou.
In the Rada Rite, practitioners honor and interact with ancestral spirits and deities, seeking their guidance, protection, and blessings. The spirits associated with the Rada Rite mentioned in the source are Legba Atibon, Legba Azouka, and Vye Legba. Legba, in particular, is a prominent figure within the Rada pantheon.
Legba serves as the intermediary between the human world and the spiritual realm. He is often depicted as an old man with a cane and is revered as the guardian of crossroads, gates, and thresholds. Legba is seen as the initial and final point of contact for communication with the spirits and serves as the gatekeeper of divine wisdom and knowledge.
Rada ceremonies and rituals are characterized by their emphasis on harmony, healing, and balance. They often involve elaborate dances, rhythmic drumming, and songs that invoke the spirits. Offerings such as food, drinks, and symbolic items are presented to the spirits during these rituals as a sign of respect and gratitude.
The Rada Rite exemplifies the integration and syncretism of African and Catholic elements in Haitian Vodou. It reflects the resilience and adaptability of the Rada people’s spiritual practices in their new cultural and religious environment. Through the Rada Rite, practitioners connect with their ancestral heritage, seek guidance in their daily lives, and maintain a strong bond with the spirits that migrated with them from the Bight of Benin.
The Founder Principle is a concept within the context of spirit migration in Haitian Vodou. It refers to the idea that a select group of spirits from the Rites of the Bight of Benin migrated to the Rites of West Central Africa and became key influencers and contributors to the spiritual practices in their new home.
When these spirits made the decision to migrate, they brought with them their ritual knowledge, organizational structures, and cultural traditions. Their arrival in the Rites of West Central Africa infused new elements into the existing spiritual practices of that region. They introduced their own unique deities, songs, dances, and ritual techniques, enhancing the spiritual landscape and creating a fusion of traditions.
The migrated spirits, considered as spiritual refugees of sorts, established themselves as iconic figures in the Vodou pantheon of West Central African Rites. They became revered as ancestral spirits or Lwa (Loa) within the Haitian Vodou tradition. Examples of these migrated spirits include Legba Gwètò, Ogou Je Wouj, and Èzili Towo.
The Founder Principle reflects the dynamic nature of Haitian Vodou and its ongoing evolution. It demonstrates how spiritual migration and cultural exchange have shaped the religious practices and beliefs of the Vodou community. The migrated spirits became essential figures in the Vodou pantheon, influencing rituals, songs, and the overall spiritual landscape.
Overall, the Founder Principle serves as a testament to the adaptability and transformative power of Haitian Vodou, showcasing how traditions can merge and take on new forms while retaining their spiritual significance.
Ah, spirit migration, the cosmically hilarious game of “Guess Who’s Transcending” played by the spirits of Haitian Vodou. Picture it: a spirited group of supernatural beings from the Rites of the Bight of Benin (Rada, Nago) saying “Adieu!” to their homeland and embarking on a one-way trip to the Rites of West Central Africa (Zandò, Petwo Fran, Kongo Fran). It’s like a centuries-old intercontinental pub crawl, but instead of hoppy beers, they’re indulging in cultural exchanges and mythological mingling.
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Now, you might be wondering, why did these spirits decide to uproot themselves and migrate? Well, it’s not like they had a thirst for adventure or wanted to experience the joys of frequent flyer miles. Nope, this migration was more about spreading their divine influence and getting cozy in their new spiritual habitats. It’s like them saying, “Hey, West Central Africa, we heard your spiritual scene could use an upgrade. We’ve got the ritual knowledge, the organizational structures, and a killer taste in sacred songs. Mind if we crash this party?”
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But here’s the funny part: this whole spirit migration thing isn’t just a random act of ghostly goodwill. It’s all part of a grand Founder Principle show, where a select few spirits from the Bight of Benin decided to pack their celestial suitcases and make the journey to the West Central African Rites. Talk about spiritual hospitality!
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Now, let’s not forget that amidst all this supernatural globe-trotting, there’s a hint of cheeky irony. These spirits, with names like Legba Gwètò, Ogou Je Wouj, and Èzili Towo, are carrying their culturally-rich lexicon from West African languages like Fon, Yoruba, Ewe, and Igbo, along with some groovy West Central African flavors like Kikongo and Kituba. It’s like a linguistic potluck, where every spirit brings their own unique linguistic dish to…
Vodou Asogwe is like the big boss of Haitian Vodou traditions. It’s one of the most well-known and significant traditions in Haiti. What makes Asogwe Vodou special is that it combines different African religious practices into one cohesive system.
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In Asogwe Vodou, they believe in one big God called Bondye, and they also worship intercessor spirits. These spirits have mythological, historical, and ritual significance in the Vodou community. The cool thing is that they sing songs and perform rituals in Haitian Creole, but they use a lot of words from West African languages like Fon, Yoruba, Ewe, Igbo, Kikongo, and Kituba. So, it’s like a mix of African and Haitian culture!
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The Asogwe Vodou tradition is most prominent in the Department of the West, which includes places like Port-au-Prince and Léogâne. It’s there that you’ll find the strongest hold of Asogwe Vodou practices and beliefs.
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Now, Vodou is known for its syncretism, which means it combines different religious elements. While some researchers have looked at the infusion of Catholic elements in Vodou, there haven’t been as many studies on how Asogwe Vodou assimilated various African religious traditions. But thanks to the work of scholars like Beauvoir and others, more attention has been given to understanding the African influences in Asogwe Vodou.
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One interesting thing is that there is a belief in spirit migration within the different Vodou Rites. Some important spirits from the Bight of Benin region have migrated into the Rites of West Central Africa. This suggests that the founders of Vodou from the Bight of Benin had a significant impact on shaping the religion, even though it also incorporates elements from other African traditions. It’s like a big cultural mix!
Vodou Makout/Makousi, also known as “strawbag Vodou,” is one of the most common types of Vodou practiced in Haiti. It is characterized by the involvement of gangan (male) or manbo (female) priests who provide treatments for the sick and hold religious services for families and communities.
The term “Makout/Makousi” refers to the strawbags that these priests carry, which contain their ritual tools and items used in their spiritual practices. The priests of Vodou Makout/Makousi are typically found in rural areas and are often called to their vocation through dreams and family traditions.
In this tradition, the gangan and manbo priests play a crucial role in healing and providing spiritual guidance to their community members. They use various rituals, including prayers, invocations, herbal remedies, and divination, to assist individuals in physical, emotional, and spiritual healing. They are believed to have special connections with the spirit world and act as intermediaries between humans and the divine.
The religious services conducted by Vodou Makout/Makousi priests often include ceremonies focused on honoring ancestral spirits, deities, and the loa (spirits) of the Vodou pantheon. These ceremonies may involve drumming, singing, dancing, and the offering of food, beverages, and other symbolic items to the spirits.
Vodou Makout/Makousi priests are deeply rooted in Haitian culture and tradition. They provide both spiritual and practical guidance to their communities, addressing not only religious and healing needs but also matters related to social, emotional, and psychological well-being.
It is important to note that Vodou Makout/Makousi is just one type of Vodou practiced in Haiti, and the organization and practices may vary among different communities and regions. The diversity within Vodou reflects the cultural, historical, and geographical influences that have shaped the religion over time.
The Liberal Insurrection of 1883 was a significant event in Haitian history that took place in the aftermath of the country’s struggle for independence. Led by Jean-Pierre Boyer Bazelais and supported by other exiles from the British colonies of the Bahamas and Jamaica, the insurrection aimed to challenge the rule of Haitian President Lysius Salomon and his National Party agenda.
The insurrection began on March 27, 1883, when Boyer Bazelais and his supporters descended upon the port town of Miragoâne under cover of darkness. With relative ease, they took control of the town and barricaded themselves, marking the beginning of the civil war. The movement quickly spread throughout the southern peninsula of Haiti, establishing strongholds in other cities like Jérémie and Jacmel.
While some contemporary newspapers in Paris simplified the event by portraying it as a revolt by “mulattoes” against a “negro government,” Louis-Joseph Janvier, a Haitian intellectual, demonstrated a more nuanced understanding of the root causes of the conflict. Janvier attributed the insurrection to Salomon’s land reform law, which the Liberal Party opposed.
The insurrection faced opposition from government troops aided by the popular classes in Port-au-Prince, who marked their victory over the insurgents by setting fire to numerous buildings and businesses in the capital. Ultimately, the insurgents failed to secure popular support, and Salomon managed to quell the rebellion by early 1884.
The Liberal Insurrection of 1883 had a profound impact on the understanding of Haitian history for Louis-Joseph Janvier. He saw it as a defining moment that reaffirmed the lessons of the past and shed light on the multifaceted factors contributing to Haiti’s political conflicts. Inspired by this event, Janvier coined the phrase “Haïti aux Haïtiens,” expressing his vision for Haiti’s future, emphasizing the importance of Haitian autonomy and self-determination.
Pierre François Joseph Benoit Rosalvo Bobo or Rosalvo Bobo Haitian politician who opposed the United States occupation of Haiti in 1915. He led the Cacos Rebellion in response to the landing of US Marines at Port au Prince on 28 July 1915. Admiral William B. Caperton ordered the troops in after the death of Jean Vilbrun Guillaume Sam. In this way Bobo was prevented from becoming president with Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave being installed as a US puppet. Bobo first fled to Cuba, but then moved on to Jamaica. He finally settled in France, where he died in 1929.
Beyond the mountains there are more mountains. Michael Diebert finds this to be “a beautiful expression, not only of hope and struggle, but of lineage, of history.”
Naming things in social science like History is qualitative, not quantitative. Categories are a convenience.
History, for example, falls under the social science category and historians name things, events, groups to facilitate their narratives.
Categories are more rigid in the hard sciences like physics or mathematics. When something is called something in physics, for example, no one argues about the definitions.
So be careful—don’t treat social science categories like they’re scientific ones. They’re not. Otherwise, you end up arguing endlessly and focusing obsessively on the wrong things.
To have a firm grasp of history, you have to understand and master the process of history. It’s more important than what the process is or should be called.
I first ran into the concept of Hierophany from an article on Haitian Vodou written by none other than the greats, Patrick Bellegarde-Smith & Claudine Michel.
Hierophany is the act of being aware of something sacred manifesting itself through various things in the physical world. “Hiero” is Greek for sacred/holy; “phany” means appearance or manifestation.
It’s the act of seeing the divine in the ordinary, the abstract in the concrete, seeing the software in the hardware–to use today’s tech-obsessed parlance.
Hierophany was coined by the philosopher Mircea Eliade in his work “Treatise on the History of Religions.”
When you manifest the sacred, ordinary objects become something else without losing themselves in the transmutation process. A sacred book is still a book sitting next to other ordinary books.
This is the case where addition (or change) is not a zero/sum game, where adding doesn’t come at the expense of something else. So while 1 + 1 = 3, the ones are still contained within the 3–they weren’t obliterated in the process of transmutation.
This is Latin, literally: “as if a dead body”, meaning the total emptying of the self/ego, to make room for total obedience to the church
It’s a motto principally applied to the creation of a centralized organization like the Catholic Church, where the Jesuits practiced total self-denial, the willful hallowing out of the ego so as to make room for the total submission to the Pope and those at the top of the ecumenical food chain.
Once you grasp the application of this motto to the Catholic Church, you can see how it is a project fraught with complications because self-denial is counterfeiting on a grand scale.
Counterfeiting is a Beaudrillard, Jean term. He talks about this human tendency to replace a natural thing with an artificially constructed one: “…the demiurgic ambition to exorcise the natural substance of a thing in order to substitute a synthetic one.”
Cross reference “perinde ac cadaver” with the act disembedding. Is the latter term a manifestation of the former?
basically the GDP of the Haitian masses, everything the masses produced at any given period,
the importance Haitian history ought to be gauged not by the political power vested in its individual regimes, but by how those regimes extracted and redistributed the peasantry’s economic surpluses back to the elites, not to the people who created those surpluses.
a position requiring little or no work but giving the holder status or financial benefit.
Sinecures is at the heart of parasitic malady plaguing Haiti since its creation as an independent nation.
The urban parasite hold positions in the government with a salary they relatively low on paper but behind the scene, they get paid substantially more from the treasury, most of which came from the labors of the peasantry.
Haitian historians came up with this term. Literally, it translates as “government by understudies”. Meaning, powerful people put unqualified bureaucrats in government positions to benefit the former’s interests.
Trouillot gives us several examples of Haitian presidents who were installed to power via politique de doublure.
To consolidate their own powers, mulâtre puppet masters like Ardouin, Beaubrun and his brothers, for example, secretly installed several dark-skinned presidents—Guerrier, Philippe (1844-45), Pierrot, Jean-Louis (1845-46), and Riché, Jean-Baptiste (1846-47).
Terra nullius is a Latin term that means “nobody’s land”. By “nobody” desettlers means somebody they turned into nobody to justify all sorts of evil shit. Therefore, It is a colonial concept that denies the existence, sovereignty, and rights of the Indigenous peoples who lived and cared for the land for generations. It is a legal fiction that justifies the invasion, occupation, and exploitation of the land and its resources by the colonizers. It is a violent erasure of the history, culture, and identity of the Indigenous peoples. It is a term that must be challenged and rejected by those who seek to decolonize the land and its relations. (see the Doctrine of Discovery)
The doctrine of discovery refers to a principle in public international law under which, when a nation “discovers” land, it directly acquires rights on that land.
More broadly, the doctrine of discovery can be described as an international law doctrine giving authorization to explorers to claim terra nullius – i.e. said inhabited land – in the name of their sovereign when the land was not populated by Christians.
This doctrine arose when white European nations discovered black and brown non-European lands, and therefore created, out of thin air, special rights, such as property and sovereignty rights, on those lands.
In fact, this doctrine was used in order to legitimize the colonization of lands outside of Europe.
Of course, this predatory principle disregards the fact that the land oftentimes is already inhabited by another nation or society.
Yes, the spelling is correct! This is one of those words that looks fat-fingered; and no, it’s not equivalent to that indecipherable Trumpian “covfefe’. It’s a real word.
I first encountered the word while reading Trouillot, Michel-Rolph’s “Haiti: State Against Nation. The Origin and Legacy of Duvalierism, pg 57”.
It’s a medieval term for a deed that represents a transaction in which the deed holder was given land in exchange for service rendered.
Though not explicitly stated as such, Land grants by Christophe to his officer corps, for example, can be considered a form of enfeoffment for military service rendered.
Disembedding refers to the way in which contemporary social practices can no longer be primarily defined by their grounding, or embeddedness, in the local context of a restricted place and time.
When something is disembedded, it is moved from a concrete, tangible, local context to an abstract or virtual state.
Examples: Slavery in the new world disembedded the lived experiences of Africans and abstracted their social ties or kinships into commodities;
Money is disembedded value because it used to represent something material;
software is the act of disembedding a real world problem into a virtual one;
Source: Inspired by a conversation with Historian Dr. Alexis, Yveline
Since it was whites who enslaved blacks, whites fearing blacks should be contextualized and held with a high degree of skepticism. After all, blacks were the captives of whites for centuries. If one group should fear the other, the enslaved have a legitimate claim to the term.
For example, to say “white planters feared Makandal, François” should be rephrased as “white planters supposedly feared Makandal, François’s and his falsely alleged poisoning regime.” (See Garrigus, John)
Source: “The Writings of George Washington,” ed. by Jared Sparks (Boston, 1834-1837), X, 194, 195.
The following letters are replies from George Washington to Ternant, the French Minister to the United States, who white-fearing the uprising in Saint-Domingue, asked the U.S. for aid. Washington’s reply is quite revealing but not surprising.
Remember, Bois Caïman went live on August 20ish, 1791.
Letter 1 from Washington to Ternant, dated September 24, 1791
“Sincerely regretting as I do the cause which has given rise to this application, I am happy…that the United States are to render every aid in their power to quell ‘the alarming insurrection of the negroes of Hispaniola'”
Letter 2 from Washington to Ternant, dated October 2nd, 1791
“Whatever the final issue of this affair may be, it is difficult at this distance…to foretell, but, certain it is, the commencement has been both daring and alarming.”
The “Colas Cut Legs” moniker was probably due to his kidnappers cutting off his hamstrings to keep him from escaping, according to John Garrigus in A Secret among the Blacks.
Planters in 1720s Saint-Domingue claimed to fear him as a maroon leader who led successive attacks on travelers and plantation estates.
He was also known as an avid practitioner of African-style rituals
It’s not certain thatAristide coined the term Tout moun se moun; but he popularized it. For a country whose history is dominated by the elites marginalizing the bulk of the population, It’s a very powerful concept popularized by Aristide, which gave his Lavallas movement a signature rubric from which to operate under.
Because the structures of the country remains profoundly unequal, tout moun se moun still has resonance.
La Comtesse Noire / The Black Countess Artist Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901) Collection: Harvard Museum Source: Gallery Text / Harvard Museum.
The Countess de Delva
“This painting has posed a puzzle since it entered the Wertheim Collection in 1937. It was known that Toulouse-Lautrec created it while he was still a young artist, but the identity of the black woman at the center of the composition remained a mystery. She was sometimes said to be a countess the artist had seen while spending the winter in Nice, then a seasonal resort community for affluent French families. An archival discovery in 2019 revealed that she is likely Anne Justine Angèle Delva de Dalmarie. A member of the Haitian aristocracy who had emigrated to France, she was famous in Paris and Nice for her lavish parties. The clothing of the man beside the countess suggests that he is her coachman, a sign of her affluence. The countess, though, has taken the reins, speeding along Nice’s sunny shoreline while a dog gives chase.”
The Haitian Revolution is a problematic term, one that I use with some caution. When used haphazardly, it becomes this sweeping term that devours everything in its path and then spits out all sorts of stupid conclusions.
Misapplied, it creates all sorts of minefields: it collapses what should be expanded; erases what should be highlighted; it creates intentionality where none exists.
What you end up with at times is a kind of torturous Bed of Procrustes, making strange bedfellows of cause and effect.
The Haitian Revolution was a liquid, not a solid. And as such, it ought to be framed as a continuous set of processes: this happened, followed by that, and then that; this event is connected to that one; this individual made these decisions in this or that context, which then resulted in that… .
A white desettler. We can no longer call white colonizers “settlers” because it erases the fact that they desettled the previous occupants of the land either through infectious diseases, rape, or mass genocides. (See petit blanc et grand blanc.)
Casimir, Jean, the Haitian historian, asked why they left the metropole. They were treated like crap back in the metropole and in the desettled so-called Saint-Domingue.
Fried breads and meatballs just look the same from afar. This is a way of saying some processes look very similar from a distance but upclose, they are two different things.
Example: You’re surfing the internet at work. However, to your boss , it looks like you’re actually doing the work.
Another takeaway is a warning to look at things/people closely–not to judge a book by its cover.
